Votrys (grape) and oenos (wine)

Evidence indicating the consumption of grapes and wine in ancient times varies. As regards the prehistoric periods, the information is based on palaeobotanical and archaeological remains. The earliest evidence of fruit gathering from wild vines dates between 4500-3500 BC and is found in Ag.EpiktitosVrissi, in Kyrenia district (Karageorghis 1993, 31; Hadjisavvas 2009, 141). At almost all Chalcolithic sites, palaeobotanical remains confirm the existence of vineyards in Cyprus. At the site of Kalopsida (Famagusta district) dating from the Early/Middle Bronze Age, impressions of grape cores on pottery have been found (Karageorghis 1993, 31-32). A series of redstamped vases with plastic scattered decoration, with themes taken from everyday life, date to the same period. Among the representations, some have been interpreted as scenes of grape pressing (linos). The vases are known as 'Kalavasos bowl', 'Desmond Morris Collection bowl' and 'Pyrgos bowl’. "Kalavasos bowl" Picture 1- The vase was found in the necropolis of Kalavasos, in Larnaca district. The plastic decoration on the peristyle has been interpreted by Todd (1986) on one side as a scene of crushing and pressing of grapes for wine production and on the other side as a process of bread making. A figure stands inside a circular tub. Another figure stands outside the tub and watches the scene. The circular tub is connected through an outflow vessel to another basin (Todd 1986, 42). It is not generally accepted that the scene corresponds to a wine-making process (Todd 1986, 41-2; Karageorghis 1993, 32; Hadjisavvas 2009; 142). "Desmond Morris Collection bowl" Picture 2- The effigy belonged to the private collection of Desmond Morris and is presumed to have come from the Mountains cemetery in the district of Kyrenia (Karageorghis 2002, 67 fn. 2). It is roughly tubshaped, resting on four cylindrical legs and leading to an outflow port on one side. Six figures are standing around the wall of the bowl, one figure is standing inside and four others are in the outflow port. The scene has been interpreted as the likeness of linos. The human figure in the centre, because of its size and prominent position, is probably a person of a higher social class. One interpretation of the scene is that it depicts the moment when a distinguished person is invited to enter the linos first and proclaim the process (Karageorghis 2002, 74). "Pyrgos bowl" Picture 3- The vase comes from the necropolis of Pyrgos, in the Limassol district. Various scenes of everyday life are represented in the vase (Flourentzos 2001, 163). In a prominent position between the handles, the scene of crushing grapes is represented. A female figure stands in a basin which is connected to a cylindrical outflow and ends in another basin. Another figure fills a jug with the product. During the Late Bronze Age, wine production was systematised and intensified in order to meet the growing needs of the upper social class. In this period, there is clear evidence of wine production methods (Hadjisavvas 2009, 141). At the site of Hala Sultan Tekke, in Larnaca district, a tub with an outflow spout was found which is believed to have been used for the production of either oil or wine (Hadjisavvas 2009, 142). The earliest evidence of the use of a lever-operated press for wine production is found at the site of Alassa-Paliotaverna, in the Troodos Mountains. The press was found in Building 3, which was a storage and laboratory space (Hadjisavvas 2009, 142). Building 3 is located very close to the administrative Building 2 and has been interpreted as a space that served the needs of a group of upper class (elite) individuals who resided in Building 2 (Hadjisavvas 2009, 143). Picture 4. In another mosaic, the scene of the "triumph of Dionysus" is depicted, where Satyrus follows Dionysus holding a crater (a vase for mixing wine with water) - Picture 5. A large-scale mosaic depicts scenes of harvesting (Michaelides 1998, 35; Michaelides 1992, 30) - Picture 6. A mosaic in the same house depicts geometric shapes combined with objects and tools of everyday use, arranged in eleven frames. Among the objects is a tray with three pomegranates and a basket full of grapes (Kondoleon 1995, 121,129; Michaelides 1989, 30-31). Picture 7. In a similar mosaic, squares are formed in which a pomegranate and a bunch of grapes are depicted (Kondoleon 1995, 51,53; Michaelides 1992, 32) - Picture 8. In a representation in the mosaic of the 'Four Seasons' in the 'House of Dionysus', grapes are depicted in baskets among other fruits and correspond to 'autumn' (Michaelides 1998, 31; Michaelides 1992, 24-25). The original surviving pieces of the mosaic are very few and the mosaic that survives today is the result of restoration (Kondoleon 1995, 88) - Picture 9. In a 4th c. AD mosaic from Laboussa, a young man is offering a tray full of large grapes (Michaelides 1998, 35; Michaelides 1992, 64) - Picture 10. In the ceremonial procession of the young Dionysus, grapes, a pomegranate and an apple are also offered by a satyr to Dionysus in the 'House of the Aeon' at Nea Paphos (Michaelides 1993, 34; Michaelides 1992, 62-63; Michaelides 1989, 68-69) - Picture 11 Finally, an allegorical representation in a mosaic in the Basilica of Chrysopolitissa in Paphos shows a vine laden with grapes (Michaelides 1992, 70-71). - Picture 12. Apart from the archaeological remains, four written references to the wine of Cyprus have been preserved by Strabo and Pliny around the 1st century AD, by Synesius of Cyrene and Palladas around the 5th century AD. -texts 1-4.